GEOGRAPHY, TRAVELS AND EXPLORATION


Arabia being a barren peninsula, its inhabitants had always to depend on foreign supplies for the necessities of life, hence they had to undertake trips to distant countries like Egypt, Abbysinia, Syria, Persia and Iraq. It was an Arab caravan which brought Hazrat Yusuf (Prophet Joseph) to Egypt. Moreover, the fertile areas in Arabia including Yemen, Yamama, Oman, Bahrain and Hadari-Maut were situated on the coast, and the Arabs being sea-faring people took sea routes in order to reach these places and fulfilling their commercial ventures.

The birth of Islam opened a new vista for their enterprises and the vast conquests of the Arabs during the early decade of Islamic history served as a fresh stimulus to their adventurous spirits. The stories of the famous Arabian Nights including the one about Sindbad the Sailor, give a glimpse of the adventures of those fearless Arabs. It provides a slightly colored account of the great voyages undertaken by Arab mariners as early as the 1st century A.H., and who, undaunted by the perils enroute, roamed about in stormy seas reaching such distant lands as Ceylon, Zanzibar, Maldives, Malaya, Java and Sumatra.

The Haj or the holy pilgrimage to Makkah was another factor which added to their geographical and commercial knowledge by providing social contacts among the Muslims of various countries visiting Makkah every year. This pilgrimage provided not only the means for promoting religious unity but also contributed to strengthening the commercial ties among Muslim countries and led to the exchange of views and news among people of far-flung countries. In fact the Haj, which created an opportunity for a great international assembly each year has paved the way for Muslim commercial and geographical enterprises.

The invention of mariner's compass opened vast oceans for their enterprising voyages. Most European writers have credited the Chinese with inventing the mariner's compass, but according to the famous orientalist George Sarton, the Arabs were the first to make practical use of it, a fact which has been admitted by the Chinese themselves. Another celebrated orientalist, Philip K. Hitti, has endorsed the view expressed by George Sarton. "According to a statement of Sir R. F. Burton, it even seems that Ibn Majid was venerated in the past century on the African coast as the inventor of the compass". Any way, the practical use of the compass has immensely contributed to the undertaking of distant voyages by Arab sailors, who had hitherto been confined to coastal trips. They now came out into the open ocean and roamed about in the Atlantic as well as in the Pacific, circled the African continent and touched even the shores of the New World. The frail boats were replaced by larger sailing ships and Arabs with the help of compass and other marine instruments braved the stormy seas.

The golden period of Muslim geography, travels and explorations runs from the 9th to the 14th century A.D., in which a vast amount of travel and geographical literature was produced in the world of Islam, which ultimately paved the way for later explorations and discoveries by the Christian West. Writing in the Legacy of Islam J. H. Kramers says, "Europe ought to look upon them (Muslims) as its cultural ancestors in the domain of geographical knowledge of discovery and of world trade. The influence which Islam has exercised on our modern civilization in the spheres of action can be seen in the many terms of Arabic origin which are to be found in the vocabulary of trade and navigation. The measure of influence can only be proved by studying the historical development of the domain over which our actual geographical knowledge extends".'


Theorists

The works of Greek writers specially the Almagest, written by Ptolemy provided the starting ground for Arab geographers. Al-Khwarizmi, the eminent Arab scientist, who flourished during the reign of the celebrated Mamun-ar-Rashid incorporated some of the ideas of Almagest in his geographical treatise Kitab Surat aL-arz. The book which has been preserved in Strasbourg was edited along with a Latin translation by Nallino.

The simple geographical descriptions of numerous countries including their physical features, climatic conditions and the life of the people formed the subject matter of treatises compiled by early Muslim geographers. Ibn Khurdabaih wrote Kitabal-Masaalikwal-Mamaalik; Al-Yaqubi compiled Kitab al-Buldan; Ibn al-Faqih also wrote Kitab al-Buldan and Ibn Rusta named his work Kifab al-A'laq al-Nafisa. These books contained simple facts about the countries in order to satisfy the practical necessities of travelers visiting such countries.

The foremost writer of such geographical treatises during this period was Abu Zaid Al-Balkhi who was an eminent scholar at the court of the ruler of Khorasan. He has the distinction of being the author of as many as 43 books including his Suwarul-Aqaalim a geographical work of considerable value which is not available at present. The book guided later writers on the subject.

Abu Yahya Zakariya Ibn Muhammad al-qazwini (1203-83 A.D.) who wrote a book entitled Ajaib-ulMakhluqat wal-Gharaib-ul-Maujudat which is a very systematic cosmographical work, and which, according to M. Streck'must be deemed as a work of fundamental importance and is quite the most valuable book that the Arab middle ages have given us in the field'. Al-Qazwini has dealt with the description of the earth together with its seven climatic regions in his other geographical treatise a tizav-ul-Bilad- wa-dkhbar-ulIbad. The book also contains the climatic regions, physical features, life and history of the people of the countries dealt with. The voluminous geographical work written by the Spanish author Al-Bakri (C. 1067), contained most elaborate information on ports and coasts.

Another geographer of repute is Hamdullah Mastaufi, the author of Nuzhat-ul-Qulub which deals with natural history, anthropology and geography. It has helped Mr. G. L. Stange in writing his book entitled Lands of Eastern Caliphate.


Explorers, Travelers and Writers

Abul Qasim Ibn Hauqal is the first traveler worth mentioning who, starting from Baghdad in 943, A.D. made an extensive tour of the Islamic countries and on his return incorporated his experiences in his geographical treatise, Kitab al-Masaalik-wal Mamaa.
Another more famous traveler of the period is Shamsuddin Abu Abdullah al-Moqaddasi. Excepting Spain and Sind, Moqaddasi too toured the length and breadth of the Islamic world. He has put down his travel experiences in his celebrated geographical work Ahsan-al-Taqasim fi Marifat al-Aqaeim a rare book of its type. A. Sprenger has acclaimed him as the greatest geographer of all ages. The Asiatic Society of Bengal published the English translation of his famous work in 4 volumes between 1897 and 1910 A.D.

Abul Hasan Ali Ibn al-Husain al-Masudi is one of the great versatile figures of the Islamic world.

He is a well-known writer and explorer of the East. He was still quite young when he travelled through Persia and stayed in Istakhar for about a year in 915 A.D. Starting from Baghdad, he went to India, visiting Multan and Mansura, returned to Persia and after touring Kerman again went to India. Travelling through Cambay, Deccan and Ceylon he along with some merchants sailed to Indo-China and China. On his return trip he visited Madagascar, Zanzibar, Oman and he reached Basrah where he settled afterwards and wrote his great work, Muruj-al-Dhahab (Golden meadows) in which he relates his rich experiences in a cheerful manner which amuses the reader. Masudi also visited the southern shore of the Caspian sea and travelled through Central Asia and Turkistan. Retiring to Fustat (old Cairo) he wrote his voluminous work Mirat-uz-zaman (Mirror of the Times) comprising 30 volumes in which he elaborately described the geography, history and life of the people of the countries he had visited. He toured Gujrat in 303 A.H. According to him, Chemur, a port of Gujrat was inhabited by more than 10 thousand Arabs and their descendants.

Among the great mariners of the 10th and 11th centuries A.D., Sulaiman al-Mahiri and Shahabuddin Ibn Majid occupy outstanding positions. They not only roamed about in the Indian, Pacific and atlantic oceans, but also toiled around the African continent and probably even touched the shores of the New World. Sulaiman reached as far as the Behring Strait and has penned his valuable experiences in a number of books, of which Al-Umdat aE-Mahriya Ji Zabt-ie Ulum-il-Bahriya is well -known. The other mariner Ibn Majid was considered among the four sea lions of his time. Allama Syed Sulaiman Nadvi in his book entitled The Navigation of Arabs has enumerated fifteen books written by Ibn Majid on Navigation. According to a western critic, Ibn Majid is one of the earliest writers of nautical guides and his elaborate geographical account of the Red Sea could not be surpassed even up to the present day.

Ibn Faldan was a traveler of the 10th century A.D., who led an embassy sent by the Abbasid Caliph Al-Muqtadir Billah in 921 A.D. to the Bulgarian Monarch, and incorporated his experiences in Risalah which is one of the earliest regional accounts about Russia. During the eleventh century A.D., Abu Rehan Beruni, the celebrated thinker of Islam visited India, stayed there for a number of years, learnt the Sanskrit language and described the geography and the life of India in his memorable work Kitab-al-Hiplcl. Regional geographics were also written during this period. Famous among them were the description of the Arabian peninsula by Al-Hamdani and of India by Al-Beruni. The works of travelers like Ibn Jubayr, Al-Mazini and Ibn Batuta are store-houses of geographical knowledge. Al-Mazini (1080--1170 A.D.) who visited Russia wrote Tuhfat-al-balad.

The most brilliant writer of the period is Al-Idrisi (2101--54 A.D.) who was employed at the court of the Christian king of Sicily. His book Nuzhat-ul-Mushtag contained 70 maps. In the second abridged edition of Idrisi's book one comes across eight instead of seven climates which were to be found south of the equator. The world map drawn by Idrisi is of the traditional round type and the first translation of his book was published in Rome in 1619 A.D.

Yaqut-al-Hamavi (1179--1229A.D.) compiled a big geographical dictionary named Mujam-al-Buldan which contains all geographical names in alphabetical order. It was published in 6 volumes in Leipzig (Germany) between 1666--73 A. D. Writing in the 'Introduction to the History of Science; George Sarton remarks, "The Mujam al Buldan is one of the most important works of Arabic literature. It is a store house of information not simply on geography, but also on history, ethnography and natural history. It is preceded by an introduction dealing with mathematical, physical and political geography, the size of the earth, seven climates, etc."'

The Spanish traveler, Ibn Jubayr visited Makkah and Iraq in 1192 A. D. He wrote his well-known book of Travels entitled Rihlat-ul-Kinani which is a unique book of its type in Arabic literature.

Abu Abdulla Muhammad (1304--78 A.D.), better known as Ibn Batuta was the greatest Muslim traveler. Born in Tanglers, he started his travels at the age of 20, and returned home at the age of 51. During these 31 years he covered about 75,000 miles which is equal to three trips round the globe. No explorer or traveler during mediaeval times had traversed so many miles during a lifetime. Starting from Tanglers he toured Egypt, Abbysinia, Northern and Eastern Africa including Mombassa. He crossed the great Sahara (Desert) and reached Timbuktoo. He describes an oasis in the Sahara (Desert) where people constructed houses of rock-salt roofed with camel skins. In Europe he visited Spain, the Eastern Roman Empire and Southern Russia and sailed in the Mediterranean and the Black Seas. There hardly was a Muslim country in Asia, which Ibn Batuta had not seen. He made many tours of the Arab countries and performed Haj (Holy pilgrimage to Makkah) four times. In addition he travelled in Persia, Turkistan, Afghanistan, India, Maldives, Ceylon, East India, Indo-China and China. According to him Aden was a great commercial centre in those days and had a good system of water-supply. He travelled as far North as Bolghar (54 degrees N) in Siberia, in order to see the shortness of summer nights and desired to travel into the land of darkness (extreme North of Russia), but abandoned his visit due to certain reasons. He stayed for eight years in India, as the State Qazi of Muhammad Tughlaq in Delhi, but had to flee to Deccan in order to save himself from the indignation of the Emperor. He took part in the conquest of Goa and visited Mal dives where he was made Qazi and married four wives. He relates interesting stories about India. Hindus in those days drowned themselves in the sacred waters of the Ganges in order to gain Baikunth (Paradise). On his first sight of Sati he was so overwhelmed with emotion that he almost fell off his horse. He met a very old man in the Hindukush mountains, who was said to be 358 years old and got a new set of teeth after every 180 years.


Explorations and Discoveries

Muslims may claim due share in the exploration of vast oceans and the discoveries of far off lands. But the difficulty is that the achievements of Muslims in this sphere of human activity are not generally known to the world. The largest collection of literary and artistic treasures accumulated during the five centuries of the Islamic rule, perished at the time of the fall of Baghdad. The invaluable manuscripts were consumed to ashes by Hulagu Khan and his Mongol hordes. The cream of Muslim civilization met a similar fate in Spain, at the hands of Christian conquerors. Modern research has now begun to lift the veil from the face of mediaeval ages and the achievements of the Muslims now are revealed in all their glory.

"At a time when Europe firmly believed in the flatness of the Earth," says Ameer Ali, "and was ready to burn any foolhardy person who thought otherwise, the Arabs taught geography by globes". Their progress in mathematical geography was no less remarkable. The works of Ibn Hauqal, Makrizi Istakhri, Masudi, Beruni, Idrisi, Qazwini, Wardi and Abul Fida contain store of geographical knowledge specially on this branch of science, called by them "Rasnul Ard".


Rotation of the Earth

The rotation and sphericity of the earth were discussed and proved by the Muslim geographers of mediaeval times. The Kitab Kalimat-ul-Ain deals with the rotation of the earth which causes day and night. Muslim astronomers also proved that the earth is a sphere and has a shape like a peach. Globes were commonly used in Arabic schools of mediaeval times which testifies to the contention of the sphericity of earth advanced by Muslims. Geography of the world was also taught with the help of globes in Moorish Spain.


Knowledge of Seas

Arab Mariners and explorers had a very wide knowledge of seas and oceans. The greatest discovery of the Arabs was that the oceans are connected with one another and form a compact oceanic world. The first sea route described by Sulaiman al-h-Mahiri started from the Indian Ocean and passing through the Pacific Ocean, Behring Sea, Arctic Ocean and Atlantic Oceans entered the Mediterranean Sea through the Straits of Gibraltar. The other route was easier. Starting from the Indian Ocean and passing through the Abbysinian Sea, Mozambique channel and encircling the Cape of Good Hope it entered' the Atlantic Ocean. Passing through the Straits of Gibraltar it entered the Mediterranean Sea This was the route used by Vasco De Gama in 1498 A. D. This shows that the Arabs were the masters of the seas and possessed maps of seas and oceans which they freely used in their voyages.

Ibn Khaldun has stated the length of the Red Sea, to be 1,400 miles, while according to • current maps it is given as, 1,310 miles. This shows that the speculations of Arab geographers Came-very close to modern research.


Behring Strait

The Behring Sea and Strait was known to the Arabs. The route described by Sulaiman al-Mahiri went from the Pacific Ocean to the Arctic Ocean passing through the Behring Strait. The celebrated explorer Al-Masudi has also mentioned the Behring Sea in his works. Among the Arabs it was known as 'Warang' sea.

According to the Encyclopedia of America the geography of equatorial Africa and the issuing place of the river Nile was known to the Arabs for a very long time.


Arab Pilot of Vasco De Gama

In 1498 A. D. Vasco De Gama discovered a new route to India by passing through the Cape of Good Hope. Prince Henry of Portugal had established his nautical academy at Cape St. Vincent under the guidance of Arab and Jewish teachers which prepared the ground for the explorations of Vasco De Gama It is now a well-known fact that an Arab had piloted his ship to India, Writing in Legacy of Islam, J. H. Kramers says, "when Vasco De Gama, after his circum-navigation of Africa in 11198, had reached Malindi on the East Coast of Africa, it was an Arab pilot that showed him the way to India. According to Portuguese sources, this pilot was in possession of a very good sea-map and of other maritime instruments. Arabic sources of that time also knew the story; they state that the Pilot, whom they knew under the name of Ahmad Ibn Majid, could only be induced to show the way to the Portuguese after having been made drunk". Reporting from Bares, a Portuguese who was a member of the party of Vasco De Gama, writes in the Encyclopedia of Islam: "When Vasco De Gama reached Malindi a Moor (Arab Muslim) called on him. Being much pleased in our company and with the idea of winning the favor of the king of Malindi who was in search of a pilot for the Portuguese ship, he (Arab Muslim) agreed to pilot our ship to India". According to the earned author of the Encyclopedia Britannica, a local hand had piloted the ship of Vasco De Gama to India. He is either shy of associating the name of a Muslim with the much advertised exploration of Vasco De Gama or is ignorant of such a vital fact which may hardly be expected from an author who has undertaken such a gigantic work.


The discovery of-America

Modern research has proved beyond doubt that the Arabs discovered America. Muslim Geographers and astronomers believed in the sphericity of the earth. •The trigonometrical tables of Khwarizmi were translated by Adelard of Bath, Gerard of Cremona and Roger Bacon. The famous book Image Mundi published in 1410 A. D. incorporated the Ain (or Arim) theory from the translations of Khwarizmi. It was from this book that Columbus learnt that the earth was pear shaped and that there must be some elevated part on the other side of the earth which he decided to discover. "Thus Islamic geographical theory", observes J. H. Kramers, "may claim a share in the discovery of the new world".

Modern research on the subject has gone a step further and has established that the Arabs discovered America five centuries before Columbus. The following important news was published in leading Indian newspapers including the Delhi Express, dated 11th August 1952.

"A leading South African anthropologist says the Arabs, not Christopher Columbus. discovered America, the Arabs scored a beat of nearly 500 years on Columbus, according to Dr. Jeffreys, Senior lecturer of Social Anthropology at Witwatersand University. Dr. Jeffreys based his claim on a discovery 18 months ago of Negro Hamitic skulls in the Rio. Grande River."

The professor said, 'Puzzling things previously inexplicable suddenly made sense and fitted a jigsaw puzzle'.

"Dr. Jeffreys thinks that by 1000 A. D. Arabs already commanded the Mediterranean, were established on the west coast of Africa and had settled in America. Columbus too, found small colonies of Negroes in the Darian Isthumus who, according to Dr. Jeffreys, were descendants of Arab slaves."

"He said the discovery of Hamitic skulls in caves in Bashama Islands and African root crops in the Carribean lend credence to this theory."
The celebrated anthropologist of South Africa, Prof M. D. W. Jeffreys' article has been published in various journals of the world in which he has given weighty proofs that Arabs had discovered America and had settled in Carribean islands long before the arrival of Columbus. He says, "There is an old Portuguese tradition that when the Portuguese were exploring the coasts of Guinea (West Africa) under King John II, who died in 1495, these explorers brought maize, an American plant from Guinea to Portugal.... As maize must have reached Guinea from America to introduce it to Portugal before Columbus sailed from Spain, it is clear someone must have brought it from the Americas, and I claim it were the Arabs who did so".

In the same way banana was carried by Arabs to Carribean islands and American mainland. Peter Nartyr, a friend of Columbus, published his first Decade before 1504 A.D. In it he describes the banana as it appeared in the West Indies when the Spaniards arrived. He writes: "it (banana) was brought from a part of Ethiopia called Guinea, where it grows wild, as in its native country. "It were the Arabs who introduced the banana to Guinea (West Africa) and there from carried it to Carribean islands and American mainland. Reynold writes: "The Arabs were instrumental in distributing the banana across equatorial Africa, so that it was well-established on the Guinea coast when the Portuguese first explored there in the years 1469-1474 A.D."

Moreover the Atlantic islands were known long before the discovery of Columbus. The Arabic names of these islands in the geography published by a Franciscan Friar in 1350 A.D. prove that most of these were inhabited by Arabs and their descendents, e.g., Lost Islands were named Kalidat, Teneriffe was named Elburd. The word Brazil too has Arabic origin. Armando Cortesao, formerly counsellor for the History of Science at UNESCO has published a book called The Nautical Chart of 1424, in which he has named several islands which have Arabic origin e.g., Antilia, Saya and Ymana.

The celebrated Geographer Idrisi had published his well-known geography Nuzhat-al-Mushtaq about 1151 A.D. Idrisi in his geography gives a hint that the Arabs knew the Americas. The western orientalist Glas, writing in 1764 A.D. of Idrisi, whom he -calls the Nubian geographer admits: "Anyone who reads with attention the first part of the Nubian Geographer's Third Climate will be strongly inclined to believe that the Arabs had even some knowledge of America or West India Islands”.


INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS

The achievements of Muslims in the industrial field had not been less spectacular than those in the political and intellectual spheres. The Muslims during the Caliphate of Abbasids and Omayyads in Spain had developed their industries to such a high degree of perfection that their finished products were viewed with wonder at the imperial-courts of Europe. The watch presented by Harun-ar-Rashid to Charlemagne, emperor of France was regarded as an object of wonder. Their manufactured goods had captured the markets of the known world, and their fabrics formed the favorite dresses of the ladies of the imperial houses of Europe. But, the west has always taken pains to minimize the achievements of Muslims, and John William Draper has rather gone out of the way in his outspoken book The Intellectual Development of Europe when he says, "I have to deplore the systematic manner in which the literature of Europe has contrived to put out of sight our scientific obligations to the Mohammedans. Surely, they cannot be much longer hidden - The Arab has left his intellectual impress over Europe, as, before long, Christendom will have to confess; he has indelibly written it on the heavens, as anyone may see who reads the names of the stars on a common celestial globe"

The genius of the Arabs, who formed the vanguard of human civilization during mediaeval times, manufactured novel things and organized large-scale production of commodities which were liberally supplied to different parts of the world. Their enterprising merchants carried their finished products to the outermost parts of the world. The merchant navy of Muslim Spain alone comprised 1,000 ships.


Abbasids

The Abbasid Caliphate provided the most congenial atmosphere for the intellectual, cultural and industrial developments of the Muslims. It was in this period that the Arabs were given the fullest opportunity to display their talents in-different walks of life. Harun and Mamun were the greatest patrons of arts and sciences during mediaeval times. Mutasim is particularly known for the interest he exhibited in the industrial enterprises of his empire. He had many industrial- projects executed during his lifetime and a large number of factories were established in Iraq. Manufactures of every kind were encouraged and fostered. The glass and soap made in the factories of Basrah were famous throughout the world. During the reign of Mutasim Billah, a large number of factories sprang up round about Baghdad and in other important cities of Iraq. The paper industry particularly received much impetus, and in important paper factories, skilled workmen from Egypt were employed. Persia was noted for her gold and embroidery work, which was carried on in all the big cities. High class fabrics including satin brocade, silk and carpets were manufactured in Islamic domains and were in great demand all over the world. Kufa was famous for its silk and silk handkerchiefs known as kuffiyeh. Khuzistan (ancient Susiana) produced superfine cloth. "The beautiful brocade of Tester", says an eminent orientalist, "the rich carpets of Korkub and the silks and satins of Sus were in request all over the world. The other provinces were equally famous for their splendid manufactures. Susangrid contained a royal factory for gold embroidery of damask, camel-hair fabrics and carpets. It also produced embroidered curtains made of spun silk (kazz) for the sultan, and raw silk, camel and goat hair materials. Here were manufactured splendid cloaks of spun silk, considered superior to the striped woollen cloaks of Shiraz. The wealthy cities of Khorasan were active in the production of brocades carpets, rugs, hangings, coverings for cushions, and woollen fabrics of all kinds. In short every city in the empire had its own particular manufacture in metal, glass, wool, silk or linen. Syria was famous for its manufacture of glass, and as early as the second century of the Hejra parti-coloured and enamelled glass was produced" Jundeshapur was the seat of the first observatory and the first college of natural sciences in the world. This college gave an impetus to the development of industry and commerce. The chemical research in this college led to the knowledge of sugar refining which was successfully applied to sugar industry in Khuzistan and later on in Spain. Spain produced high class sugar. The commodities exported during Abbasid Caliphate were agricultural produce, glass, hardware, silk, textiles, perfumes of all kinds, rose water, saffron, syrup, oil, etc.


Spain

The Muslim kingdom of Spain had become a very prosperous State due to the extensive industries developed there and the large-scale production carried on in the factories. Her revenues obtained through commercial duties, according to a European author, exceeded the entire revenues of all the Christian states of Europe taken together. "Spain under the Caliphate" according to - Philip K. Hitti, "was one of the wealthiest and most thickly populated lands of Europe". Cordova, the capital of the Moorish State had 13 thousand looms and a flourishing leather industry. The art of tanning and embossing leather had been developed to a high degree of perfection and from here it spread-to Morocco, England and France as the terms 'Cordovan', 'Cordwainer' and 'Morocco' indicate. The celebrated Spanish historian Maqarri has written that high class woollen and silken fabrics were manufactured not only in Cordova, but also in Malaya, Almeria and other towns. Almeria also produced glassware and brasswork. Sericulture was much developed in Spain. According to Ibn Khatib, Valencia was the home of pottery. Mining industry was fully developed. Jaen and Algrava were famous for their mines of gold and silver, Cordova for its iron and lead and Malaga for its rubies. According to Ibn Hauqal Toledo like Damascus was known throughout the world for its swords? "The art of inlaying steel and other metals" says a celebrated western orientalist "with gold and silver and decorating them with flower patterns, which was introduced from Damascus, flourished in several European and Spanish centers and left a linguistic heritage in such words as 'damascene' 'damaskeen', French 'darnasquiner' and Latin 'damschina'.

Muslim Spain was a leading State in textile industry. It produced high class cotton, woollen and silken fabrics, which captured the European markets. Cordova had 13,000 and Almeria 4,800 looms, "In the development of sumptuous textile arts" writes Philip K. Hitti "which made Arabic speaking people the leading fabric makers and silk mercersin the mediaeval world, the Arabs of Spain had a share but in carpet making Spain offered no serious competition to Eastern, specially Persian market" The word muslin has been derived from the word 'mussolina' a cotton fabric supplied to Italy from al-Mausil, The fine silken fabric supplied by Baghdad to Italy was called Baldacoo or Baldachin and it was used in the decoration of big churches of Europe. Similarly during the 13th and 14th centuries, A.D. Granada, the capital of the last Muslim kingdom in Spain supplied European dress shops with grenadines. Muslim workmen were mainly responsible in setting up textile industry in France and Italy.

The Moors had converted the barren lands of Spain into a garden and agriculture was developed to a high degree. Agricultural industry also flourished in Spain. Seville alone had several thousand oil factories. Besides the textiles and agricultural industries, paper, Porcelain earthenware, iron, steel and leather industries were carried on an extensive scale. The tapestries of Cordova, the woollen stuffs of Murcia, the silk of Granada, Almeria and Seville, the steel and gold work of Toledo and the paper of Salibat were sought all over the world. It was the Arabs who introduced the manufacture of silk and cotton fabrics in Spain. They had specialized in the art of dyeing and had invented black dyeing with indigo. The glazed tiles used in the palaces of Alhambra and the fine vases still found there bear ample testimony to their perfection in the manufacture of porcelain. The manufacture of gun-powder, sugar, and paper were introduced into Spain by Muslims.


Persia

Among eastern Muslim countries, Persia was noted for its fabrics and carpets. Even upto the present day, Persia has maintained an extensive carpet industry and Persian carpets are considered to be the best in the world. The Persians have proved themselves masters of decorative designs and color applications since time immemorial. Their fine arts including potteries, tiles and other decorative things reached a high degree of excellence. Hunting and garden seen were woven on Persian carpets and rugs.


India

During the reign of the great Mughals and even afterwards Muslims were the pioneers in cottage industries. Even today almost all the cottage industries in the Indo-Pak subcontinent are in Muslim hands. The muslin of Dacca, the woollen rugs (shawl) of Kashmir, the silken fabrics of Benares, the embroidery of Lucknow, the silver work of Bedar, the potteries of Multan, the furniture of Bareiliy and the brassware of Moradabad are manufactured and maintained by Muslim craftsman.


Fine Arts

"In the ceramics, another art as ancient' as Egypt and Susa" says Caston Migeon, "the reproduction of human form and of animals and plants as well as geometric and epigraphic figures attained a beauty of decorative style unsurpassed in any other Muslim art" Beautiful Kashani tiles with flowers painted on them were a specialty of Persia which were in great demand all over the world. "Among the Treasures of the Louvre", writes Philip K. -Hitti, "the British Museum and the Arab Museum of Cairo are exquisite pieces from Samarra and Al-Fustat including plates, cups, vases, ewers and lamps for home and Masjid use, painted with brilliant radiant lustres and acquiring through the ages metallic glazes of changing rainbow hue"."

Decorative articles of luxury were produced on a large scale in Persia, Iraq, Spain and Egypt and they adorned the palaces of the nobles and rulers of the world. A goblet of the palace of Fatimids was sold for 360 dinars. Decorative writings were painted on glasses which were hung in palaces and Masjids.

The jewelry industry also flourished during the time of the Abbasids. Harun-ar-Rashid. had purchased a ruby for 40,000 dinars and Yahya Ibn Khalid once offered 70,00,000 dirhams for a jewel box. Persia and Spain were the great centers of fine arts industries. The Hispano Moresque school excelled in metal work. One of such relies of the time of Hisham II (976--1009 A.D.) is preserved on the high altar of the cathedral of Geroma in the form of a wooden casket sheathed with silver gilt plating patterned in responsory with scroll like foliation. According to a European writer in the application of colored glazes to earthenware, Muslims were from an early period past masters. In Europe Valencia was the centre of ceramics and pottery industries. The potteries of Muslim Spain were later imitated in the Netherlands and Italy. Glazed and colored tiles were also produced in Spain and exported to European countries. Exquisite pottery was made in Toledo, Cordova, Malaga and Valencia.


Textiles

Textile industry flourished in almost all the Muslim countries. The fine woollen, cotton and silken fabrics including rugs, tapestries, satin, brocade (dibaj), sofa (sllffbt) and muslin manufactured in Muslim countries were matchless and were exported to all parts of the civilized world. These fabrics were in great demand in the Imperial palaces of the East and the West. Persian carpets are still considered the best in the world. Writing in the Legacy of Islam, J. H. Kramers says "But at the time of Islamic prosperity it had made possible a development of industrial skill which brought the artistic value of the products to an unequalled height....It is curious to note, too, that the State robes of mediaeval German Emperors bore Arabic inscriptions" During the Abbasid Caliphate carpets and textiles manufactured in Iraq and Persia maintained a high standard of workmanship. A rug costing 13,00,00,000 dirhams, set with jewels was made for the mother of al-Mutasim. A fabric called Tabi was introduced by the Arabs into Spain, which had a good market in Italy and other European countries. A number of factories were established in Tawwaj, Fasa and other cities of Faris where fine textiles, brocades, carpets and robes were manufactured. Tester and Susa, towns in Khuzistan had factories for the embroidery of 'damask', a silken cloth originated in Damascus--which was used to make curtains. Among the specialities of Khuzistan were woollen fabrics made of goat and camel hair and spun silk cloaks. Shiraz, the famous city of Persia was known throughout the East for its woollen cloaks and brocades. Khorasan and Armenia manufactured tapestries, sofas, curtains and cushion covers, while Bokhara was noted for its prayer rugs. Egypt also produced high class fabrics including Dabigi and Tinnisi which had a high reputation in the world markets.


Other Industries

A large number of finished products and other articles were exported from Muslim countries. Even the small province of Tranxonia exported among other things soap, carpets, copper lamps, felt-cloaks, fur, amber, honey, scissors, swords, looms, tables, sofas, lamps, vases, earthenware and kitchen utensils. The Syrian towns specially Sidon and Tyre were noted for their fine glass and metal vessels which were sought all over the world and were used as articles of utility and luxury. Ibn Batuta found Damascus as the centre of Mosaic and Kashani industry, which were used for decorative purposes in the construction of palatial buildings. The paper manufactured in Samarqand was considered to be the best in the world. The first paper factory in Baghdad was established by the end of 8th century A. D. Paper mills were founded in Egypt, Morocco and Spain before the end of 12th century A. D. "From Muslim Spain" says a European writer, "in the 12th and 13th centuries, the manufacture of paper finally worked its way into Christian Europe". The Abbasid caliph al-Mustasim Billah was a great patron of industries. The keen interest shown by him led to the rapid industrialization of Iraq and other countries. He opened big soap and glass factories in Baghdad, Samarra and other towns.


Mining

Mines were worked in almost all the Muslim countries. The rich mines of Spain yielded iron, copper, lead, gold, silver and rubies. Transaxonian mines yielded marble, mercury, rubies, asbestos and azurite. Karman had big lead and silver mines. Pearls were obtained from Bahrein, carnelian from Sana, turquoise from Neshapur, rubies from Badakhshan, iron from Mt. Lebanon, kaolin and marble from Tabriz. Syria and Palestine had large sulphur mines. Capable engineers and miners were employed in the iron mines of Khorasan (Persia) and lead and silver mines of Karman (Persia). Georgian mines yielded bitumen and naphtha. Thus the mineral resources of the Muslim countries were fully tapped and worked. The countries noted for their mining industry were Persia, Spain, Caucasia, Transaxonia and Palestine.


Ship Building

Arabs who were the greatest sailors and mariners of mediaeval times carried on an extensive sea-borne trade between the East and the West. To meet this increasing sea-borne commerce, ship-yards were built in all the important ports of Muslim countries, which were called Darul Sanayeh, The ports of Abla and Sirafin the Persian Gulf, Tunis on the North African Coast, Dania in Spain, Sus in Morocco, Palermo and Messina in Muslim Sicily, Bari in Muslim Italy and Acre in Syria had ship building factories. During the Omayyad caliphate such a factory was founded in Ashbilia (Syria) and during the reign of Abbasids a big ship building yard existed in Sus. The celebrated conqueror Saladin had established a large ship building yard in Beirut to enable him to meet the challenge of the crusaders. Egypt had several ship building yards. The first of this kind was established in 54 A. H. in Egypt. The Fatimid caliphs had ship building factories in Cairo, Alexandria and Diametta.

The skill of Muslim craftsmen has now been acknowledged by liberal European writers. Writing in his well known work Intellectual Development of Europe John William Draper says, "They (Arabs) also promoted many important branches of industry improved the manufacture of textile, fabrics, earthenware, iron, steel, the Toledo sword blades were everywhere prized for their temper. The Arabs, on their expulsion from Spain, carried the manufacture of a kind of leather, in which they were acknowledged to excel, to Morocco, from which country the leather itself has now taken its name. They also introduced inventions of a more ominous kind gunpowder and artillery. The canon they used appeared to have been made of wrought iron. But perhaps they more than compensated for these evil contrivances by the introduction of mariner's compass".l

R. Briffault says, "By and by the manufactures of the East were introduced and imitated in the Christian Europe. Silk looms were established in Norman Sicily. Venice copied with the aid of native craftsmen the glassware of Antioch, Lyons the 'Damasks', Paris the 'Tapis Surrasins' and Rheims the linen of Syria. The rich dyes of the East were brought to Bruges, where they were used to prepare English wool for the market. The wares of Spain and Majorica led to the establishment of Italian factories for the manufacture of majolica. Sugar factories were transferred from Sicily to Italy and from Spain to south France".